Lead-acid batteries are rechargeable batteries used in a wide range of applications, from engine starting to traction, buffer, or cyclic use. Their design and technology vary depending on the application.
The components of lead-acid batteries consist of positive and negative plates immersed in a solution of sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) (electrolyte). The positive plates are made of lead dioxide (PbO₂), while the negative plates are made of pure spongy lead (Pb).

The lifespan of a lead-acid battery is directly related to how it is used.
Many factors affect the battery’s lifespan (temperature, topping up, full recharges). Generally speaking, a good lead-acid traction battery (PZS and PZB) lasts between 1,200 and 1,500 cycles at an 80% depth of discharge (DOD).

No. Partial recharging only damages the battery, reduces its capacity, and shortens its overall lifespan.
Top-ups are permitted only for lead-gel and lithium batteries, and only under the manufacturer’s specific instructions.

To be fully recharged, a lead-acid battery must have at least a 50% residual charge. In any case, the residual capacity should never fall below 20%.
Discharging it beyond this threshold triggers sulfation processes or, in the worst cases, a reversal of the internal electrodes, causing irreversible damage to the battery.

• Failure to top off the battery regularly
• Deep discharges
• Use of an unsuitable battery charger
• Overcharging
• Insufficient maintenance
• Exposure to extreme temperatures, both hot and cold
• Excessive vibrations

Fully charging the battery is necessary and essential to maximize its performance and prevent sulfation.

The average efficiency of a lead-acid battery is about 70%.

To fully recharge the battery (WA curve with a charging current proportional to the battery’s capacity – approximately 16% of the battery’s Ah rating), a period of about 8–9 hours is required.
During the final stage of charging, the electrolyte mixes and the water component tends to evaporate; therefore, the lead-acid battery requires periodic topping up (demineralized water).

Sulfation occurs when a battery is left discharged for long periods of time or is not fully recharged.
Lead sulfate forms crystals on the surface of the plates, which leads to a significant increase in internal electrical resistance and a considerable decrease in capacity.

Electrolyte stratification occurs when the battery charging process is not complete, as the battery requires the final stage of charging, also known as mixing or overcharging.
Battery mixing occurs when the voltage of each individual cell exceeds 2.35/2.42 V per cell.
Under these conditions, the electrolyte mixes, and the density becomes uniform throughout the entire cell.

Lithium is the chemical element denoted by the symbol Li and atomic number 3. It belongs to the group of chemical elements and, in its pure form, is a silvery-white metal.
It is the lightest solid metal and is the substance that enables batteries to function, thanks to the ions it contains.

It consists of a lithium iron phosphate cathode and a graphite anode.
The cathode has a microscopic layered structure, through which lithium ions flow.
During operation (discharge), lithium ions flow from the anode to the cathode, while during charging, the flow reverses.

The most obvious advantages of lithium batteries are: energy efficiency, zero maintenance, and the ability to recharge them quickly or partially (top-ups).

Lithium batteries offer better performance than lead-acid batteries. For every full charge-and-discharge cycle, a lithium battery allows you to save an average of 12% in energy compared to a lead-acid battery, thanks to its charging efficiency.

Lithium batteries have a lifespan that is approximately three times longer than that of a lead-acid battery:

• Pb-acid ≈ 1200-1500 cycles
• LFP ≈ 3500-4000 cycles

Lithium batteries charge very quickly, in about 2 hours.
Lead-acid batteries have an average runtime of 8 to 9 hours.

Lithium batteries can be fully or partially charged using a dedicated battery charger. This means you can charge them whenever you have the chance, even with a partial charge (top-up).
It is recommended to maintain a charge level of at least 40% if they are not used for long periods of time

These are particles with a free positive charge (called protons) that can easily react.

This is a type of rechargeable battery that, compared to traditional lead-acid batteries, has a much higher energy density and can therefore store and deliver energy much more quickly. In fact, these batteries can be manufactured in a wide range of sizes and shapes. They are lighter and offer better performance.
Batteries are used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy through a “redox” reaction, also known as Redox, which is a chemical reaction in which electrons are transferred from one chemical species to another.

The operation (i.e., charging and discharging) of lithium batteries, which consist of a positive electrode connected to a negative electrode, is driven by chemical reactions that enable the discharge and recharge of energy.
Today’s lithium batteries offer many advantages when partially recharged: they do not lose their ability to store electricity even if they are only partially recharged.